CRISPR-Cas adaptive immune systems are found in bacteria and archaea and provide defence against phage by inserting phage-derived sequences into CRISPR loci on the host genome to provide sequence specific immunological memory against re-infection. Under laboratory conditions the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa readily evolves the high levels of CRISPR-based immunity against clonal populations of its phage DMS3vir, which in turn causes rapid extinction of the phage. However, in nature phage populations are likely to be more genetically diverse, which could theoretically impact the frequency at which CRISPR-based immunity evolves which in turn can alter phage persistence over time. Here we experimentally test these ideas and found that a smaller proportion of infected bacterial populations evolved CRISPR-based immunity against more genetically diverse phage populations, with the majority of the population evolving a sm preventing phage adsorption and providing generalised defence against a broader range of phage genotypes. However, those cells that do evolve CRISPR-based immunity in response to infection with more genetically diverse phage acquire greater numbers of CRISPR memory sequences in order to resist a wider range of phage genotypes. Despite differences in bacterial resistance evolution, the rates of phage extinction were similar in the context of clonal and diverse phage infections suggesting selection for CRISPR-based immunity or sm-based resistance plays a relatively minor role in the ecological dynamics in this study. Collectively, these data help to understand the drivers of CRISPR-based immunity and their consequences for bacteria-phage coexistence, and, more broadly, when generalised defences will be favoured over more specific defences.

Microbial communities play a vital role in shaping their local environment and provide many important ecosystem services. The structure and function of microbial communities is dependent on interactions with prokaryote-specific viruses and other mobile genetic elements (MGEs), but we know relatively little about these interactions in nature. The prokaryotic adaptive immune system CRISPR-Cas provides resistance to phage and other MGEs by inserting phage-derived sequences into CRISPR loci on the host genome to allow sequence specific immunological memory against re-infection. Compared to the specific mechanism of CRISPR-Cas, phage resistance via surface modification provides general defense against a range of phage by physically modifying the cell surface to prevent phage infection. CRISPR-Cas and surface modification have been shown to be the most common mechanisms for rapid evolution of de novo phage resistance and therefore likely play important roles in shaping microbial communities. It has been suggested that we may be able to manipulate CRISPR-Cas evolution to our advantage, but very little research has been done investigating the evolutionary outcome of such manipulation. In this thesis I investigate the importance of different ecological drivers on when CRISPR-Cas is favoured over phage resistance via surface modification. I find that increasing CRISPR allele diversity within a host population increases phage immunity at the population level. However, increasing genetic diversity within the phage population increases selection for generalist phage defence via surface modification over specific CRISPR-Cas resistance. I also attempt to investigate the importance of cell-cell communication in the evolution of bacterial resistance; however these experiments were hampered by secondary effects of inhibiting cell-cell communication. These results are discussed in context with recent findings with the aim of expanding our knowledge of CRISPR-Cas evolution and ecology and suggesting where further research would be beneficial.

Specificity in the interactions between hosts and their parasites can lead to local adaptation. However, the degree of local adaptation is predicted to depend upon the diversity of resistance alleles within the host population; increasing host diversity should decrease mean parasite infectivity and hence reduce local adaptation. In this study, we empirically test this prediction using the highly specific interactions between bacteria with clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated (CRISPR/Cas) immunity and their bacteriophage. Bacteria acquire immunity to phage by incorporating a phage-derived spacer sequence into CRISPR loci on the host genome, and phage can escape the CRISPR-mediated immunity of a specific clone by mutating the targeted sequence. We found that high levels of CRISPR allele diversity that naturally evolve in host populations exposed to phage (because each bacterial clone captures a unique phage-derived sequence) prevents phage from becoming locally adapted. By manipulating the number of CRISPR alleles in the host population, we show that phage can become locally adapted to their bacterial hosts but only when CRISPR allele diversity is low.

© 2016 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved. CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)-Cas (CRISPR-associated) systems are prokaryotic adaptive immune systems that provide protection against infection by parasitic mobile genetic elements, such as viruses and plasmids. CRISPR-Cas systems are found in approximately half of all sequenced bacterial genomes and in nearly all archaeal genomes. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the evolutionary ecology of CRISPR-Cas systems, highlight their value as model systems to answer fundamental questions concerning host-parasite coevolution, and explain how CRISPR-Cas systems can be useful tools for scientists across virtually all disciplines.

CRISPR-Cas are prokaryotic adaptive immune systems that provide protection against bacteriophage (phage) and other parasites. Little is known about how CRISPR-Cas systems are regulated, preventing prediction of phage dynamics in nature and manipulation of phage resistance in clinical settings. Here, we show that the bacteriumPseudomonas aeruginosaPA14 uses the cell–cell communication process, called quorum sensing, to activatecasgene expression, to increase CRISPR-Cas targeting of foreign DNA, and to promote CRISPR adaptation, all at high cell density. This regulatory mechanism ensures maximum CRISPR-Cas function when bacterial populations are at highest risk for phage infection. We demonstrate that CRISPR-Cas activity and acquisition of resistance can be modulated by administration of pro- and antiquorum-sensing compounds. We propose that quorum-sensing inhibitors could be used to suppress the CRISPR-Cas adaptive immune system to enhance medical applications, including phage therapies.

Prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas adaptive immune systems insert spacers derived from viruses and other parasitic DNA elements into CRISPR loci to provide sequence-specific immunity. This frequently results in high within-population spacer diversity, but it is unclear if and why this is important. Here we show that, as a result of this spacer diversity, viruses can no longer evolve to overcome CRISPR-Cas by point mutation, which results in rapid virus extinction. This effect arises from synergy between spacer diversity and the high specificity of infection, which greatly increases overall population resistance. We propose that the resulting short-lived nature of CRISPR-dependent bacteria-virus coevolution has provided strong selection for the evolution of sophisticated virus-encoded anti-CRISPR mechanisms.

In the face of infectious disease, organisms evolved a range of defense mechanisms, with a clear distinction between those that are constitutive (always active) and those that are inducible (elicited by parasites). Both defense strategies have evolved from each other, but we lack an understanding of the conditions that favor one strategy over the other. While it is hard to generalize about their degree of protection, it is possible to make generalizations about their associated fitness costs, which are commonly detected. By definition, constitutive defenses are always "on," and are therefore associated with a fixed cost, independent of parasite exposure. Inducible defenses, on the other hand, may lack costs in the absence of parasites but become costly when defense is elicited through processes such as immunopathology. Bacteria can evolve constitutive defense against phage by modification/masking of surface receptors, which is often associated with reduced fitness in the absence of phage. Bacteria can also evolve inducible defense using the CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat, CRISPR associated) immune system, which is typically elicited upon infection. CRISPR-Cas functions by integrating phage sequences into CRISPR loci on the host genome. Upon re-infection, CRISPR transcripts guide cleavage of phage genomes. In nature, both mechanisms are important. Using a general theoretical model and experimental evolution, we tease apart the mechanism that drives their evolution and show that infection risk determines the relative investment in the two arms of defense.

© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Summary in the face of infectious disease, organisms evolved a range of defense mechanisms, with a clear distinction between those that are constitutive (always active) and those that are inducible (elicited by parasites) [1]. Both defense strategies have evolved from each other [2], but we lack an understanding of the conditions that favor one strategy over the other. While it is hard to generalize about their degree of protection, it is possible to make generalizations about their associated fitness costs, which are commonly detected [3-5]. By definition, constitutive defenses are always "on," and are therefore associated with a fixed cost, independent of parasite exposure [4, 5]. Inducible defenses, on the other hand, may lack costs in the absence of parasites but become costly when defense is elicited [6] through processes such as immunopathology [7]. Bacteria can evolve constitutive defense against phage by modification/masking of surface receptors [8, 9], which is often associated with reduced fitness in the absence of phage [10]. Bacteria can also evolve inducible defense using the CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat, CRISPR associated) immune system [11], which is typically elicited upon infection [12-14]. CRISPR-Cas functions by integrating phage sequences into CRISPR loci on the host genome [15]. Upon re-infection, CRISPR transcripts guide cleavage of phage genomes [16-20]. In nature, both mechanisms are important [21, 22]. Using a general theoretical model and experimental evolution, we tease apart the mechanism that drives their evolution and show that infection risk determines the relative investment in the two arms of defense.